After offering an overview of some of the main themes of Popper’s political thought, the paper argues that his account faces two PROBLEMS relating to institutions. The first is that while Popper stresses the ‘rational unity of mankind’, and the potential for any of us to furnish criticisms of public policy, it is not clear what institutional means currently exist for this to enable this to take place. Second, Popper has stressed the conjectural character of even our best theories. However, at any point, some theories will have fared better in the face of criticism than others, and they may give us important information about constraints on our actions. At the same time, as ordinary citizens we may not be in a good position to understand the theories in question, let alone appraise the state of the specialised discussion of them. There is, it is suggested, a case for thinking of ways to institutionally entrench such fallible theories, especially in the current setting in which social media play an important role

One of the factors that can be the link between our intentions and actions and their external consequences is human AGENCY, which indicates the conscious design and intentional execution of actions by the individual in order to influence future events.Objective and Method: This research with a developmental approach of psychometric method and method 1, examines the psychometric indices of the Human Factor Characteristics Scale using the classical theory of test score measurement and the graduated question-answer theory. The purpose of this study, which included high school students in Tehran, was selected by cluster sampling of 500 people as a sample size and statistical analysis was performed on 481 data. To collect the data, the ion Human Agent Characteristics Scale (2011) was used and the research questions were evaluated using IRTPRO and SPSS software.Results:The assumption of local independence based on Pearson x2 index was established by applying Simjima's calibrated question-answer theory and the assumption of being one-dimensional based on the analysis of multidimensional question-answer theory. Diagnosis parameters with question-answer approach and classical approach Test score Both item 25 approach had the lowest and item 2 had the highest diagnosis parameter. The answer thresholds for all the questions were so far apart that no option was covered by the other option, and the options were independently selected by individuals at intervals of theta. The total scale was calculated with Cronbach's alpha of 0.945, intentionality of 0.894, foresight of 0.780, self-reactivity of 0.871 and rethinking of 0.762. Also, the role of each item in internal consistency was investigated by the loop method, which all questions had a favorable role in internal consistency of this scale. The value of the validity coefficient obtained from the question-answer theory was obtained by marginal method for intentionality 0.92, forethought 0.85, self-reaction 0.91, rethinking 0.83..

AGENCY theory suggests that AGENCY costs are resulting from conflicts of interest between managers and shareholders that might cause consequences such deviations from the optimal investment behavior. Thus, it is likely that managers have different investment behavior where the AGENCY costs exist. Hence the present study examines the impact of AGENCY costs on investment behavior in Tehran Stock Exchange. Thus, sampling deletion, numbers of 110 companies was chosen. We use efficiency ratios for measuring AGENCY costs and to estimate the investment behavior (over and under investment) the Biddle et al (2009) model have been used. The panel data model was used to test the hypothesis. The results show that AGENCY costs are causing deviations from optimal investment behavior. Thereby increasing AGENCY costs, related PROBLEMS with over and under investment will intensify and investment decisions will affect companies. Also, the results showed that the impact of AGENCY costs on the investment behavior in over and under investment firms is different.

In this study, a weak nation-state is identified in a specific geopolitical context relative to other states. this study defines a weak nation-state as a nation-state which has low maneuverability in a particular geopolitical context. Although geopolitical structures provide a weak nation-state with constraints rather than opportunities, a weak nation-state has some geopolitical AGENCY through the formulation of its geopolitical discourses. In a particular geopolitical context, weak nation-states, as geopolitical agents, face not only constraints but also take advantage of the opportunities of geopolitical structures. This study is an attempt to provide a theoretical framework for explaining a weak nation-state’ s foreign and security policies using the concepts of geopolitical culture. The framework focuses on three theoretical points: 1) Geopolitical AGENCY of a weak nation-statein geopolitical contexts, 2) the relationship between the geopolitical visions and codes of a weak nation-state, 3) A weak nation-state’ s construction of territory for its geopoliticalDiscourses. This study analyzes the way-with the help of descriptive and theoretical basis of Geopolitical structure / agencies to prove their hypothesis deal.